Mexican accounts make clear that, as the battle was being lost, as many as half the Texian defenders fled the mission and were run down and killed by Mexican lancers. Alamo | Description, Battle, & Facts | Britannica Almonte did not record names, and his count was based solely on who was there during the final assault. The Battle of the Alamo (February 23 March 6, 1836) was a crucial conflict of the Texas Revolution. The discoveries are tied to a $450 million renovation of Alamo Plaza, and the details are tantalizing. The other pyre was in what is now the yard of Dr. Ferdinand Herff Sr.s old Post, or Springfield House. At the Southwest corner of the Alamo, you are welcomed by Alamo Defender, Jos Toribio Losoya at the location of his family's home. A marble plaque in the 600 block of East Commerce Street, next to a street-level pedestrian bridge over the River Walk and across the street from the Shops at Rivercenter mall parking garage, marks the general area where two funeral pyres are believed to have burned after the 1836 Battle of the Alamo. On December 5, 1835, the Texians attacked San Antonio in what became known as the Battle of Bxar. Todish (1998), p. 85; Moore (2007), p. 100.; Davis (2004), p. 143; Todish et al. The Ludlow House, a three-story red brick boarding house built in about 1901, was razed in 1938 for a parking lot and later a Joskes tire outlet that was demolished in 1984. Some statues are recognizable from their former locations at SeaWorld and the Henry B. Gonzalez Convention Center, while others were crafted specifically for the Alamo Sculpture Trail, following the footpath from the Briscoe Western Art Museum to the Alamo. He listed the survivors as five women, one Mexican soldier and one slave. Poyo (1996), pp. Academic researchers long tiptoed around the issue of slavery in Texas; active research didnt really begin until the 1980s. These remains which we have the honor of carrying on our shoulders are those of the valiant heroes who died in the Alamo. Since then, scholars such as Randolph Campbell and Andrew Torget have demonstrated that slavery was the single issue that regularly drove a wedge between early Mexican governmentsdedicated abolitionists alland their American colonists in Texas, many of whom had immigrated to farm cotton, the provinces only cash crop at the time. Groneman (1990), p. 63; Lindley (2003), p. 144; Moore (2007), p. 100. The very first Mayor of San Antonio under the Republic of Texas, John William Smith, played an important role in early Texas history. 45; Jackson, Wheat (2005), p. 367. Legend claims that Seguin collected the ashes and placed them in a casket covered with black. In the collective memory of the Alamos last stand saga there is perhaps no image more poignant or powerful than that of the Texian dead being consumed on March 6, 1836, by massive funeral pyres. Purported to hold the ashes of Travis, Bowie and Crockett, some have doubted it can be proven whose remains are entombed there. 2023 Nonprofit journalism for an informed community. A Strong-willed Texan Scout Joined the Confederacy at 15. Some were recent immigrants from the United States, or even from Europe, and had joined the cause to defend Texas liberty. At the Southwest corner of the Alamo, you are welcomed by Alamo Defender, Jos Toribio Losoya at the location of his family's home. Lindley (2003), pp. In 2004, a bronze marker was erected by the Alamo Defenders Descendants Association at Odd Fellows Cemetery, near the northeast corner of Pine Street and Paso Hondo. Albert Martin (soldier) - Wikipedia Lindley (2003), p. 90; Groneman (1990), pp. The Irish National Flag stands in a place of honor inside The Alamo in recognition of the largest ethnic group to defend that icon of independence. You probably know the story of the Alamo and its brave-but-doomed defenders, including pioneer superstars Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie. The Alamo sat in ruins until Captain Ralstons intervention in 1846. Todish (1998), p. 82; Moore (2007), p. 100. The Alamo story takes good, solid, loyal little American kids and it converts them into Mexicans.. [4] Most Texian soldiers in Bxar left to join a planned invasion of Matamoros, Mexico. You can help preserve the This brings the total number of New York Alamo defenders to eleven. In 1995, it was placed on a rock wall further west on Commerce Street, with a bronze plaque explaining the move. Last entry is 15 minutes prior to closing. and the bones and ashes of the Alamo dead still in visible piles were shoveled into a large coffin and secretly buried under the altar of what is now the San Fernando Cathedral. With Dennis Quaid, Billy Bob Thornton, Jason Patric, Patrick Wilson. A year later the Texans were in control of San Antonio, and the bones and ashes of the Alamo dead -- still in visible piles -- were shoveled into a large coffin and secretly buried under the altar of what is now the San Fernando Cathedral. That belief was advanced by Archbishop Arthur J. Drossaerts, based on late recollections of Juan Seguin. Poyo (1996), p. 54, "Efficient in the Cause" (Stephen L. Harden). The 115names were supplied by couriers John Smith and Gerald Navan,[17] whom historian Thomas Ricks Lindley believed likely drew from their own memories, as well as from interviews with those who might have left or tried to enter. The Alamo is most famous as the site of the Battle of . Susannah Dickinson and her daughter, Angelina Dickinson, moved to Bxar with her husband, Almeron, in February 1836. Census data indicates that Latinos are poised to become a majority of the Texas population any year now, and for them, the Alamo has long been viewed as a symbol of Anglo oppression. (1998), p. 126; Moore (2004), p. 39. But other cultural groups are opposed to DNA testing on religious grounds. In a February 13 letter to Texas Governor Henry Smith, Alamo surgeon Amos Pollard spelled out the garrisons dire medical situation: It is my duty to inform you that my department is nearly destitute of medicine, and in the event of a siege I can be of very little use to the sick.. For 13 days, 189 brave and determined patriots withstood Santa Anna's . [3] When the Texian volunteer soldiers gained control of the fortress at the Siege of Bxar, compelling Cos to surrender on December 9, many saw his expulsion to the other side of the Rio Grande as the end of Mexican forces in Texas. Groneman (1990), p. 9; Moore (2007), p. 100. 88, 109, 321; Lord (1961), p. 96. HistoryNet.com contains daily features, photo galleries and over 25,000 articles originally published in our nine magazines. The most comprehensive and authoritative history site on the Internet. Chances are his lifeless bodylike those of most of his fellow defenderswas consigned to the flames of a funeral pyre. Start here.Use RoadsideAmerica.com's Attraction Maps to plan your next road trip. The men at the Alamo fought and died because they had no choice. Regardless, there will always be the terrible glory of sacrifice to remember in those flames. [21] Her work is still used by some as a benchmark, although skepticism has been voiced. One of the great mysteries of the Alamo one that lingers today as a critical issue in how the historic site is interpreted is the location of funeral pyres where bodies of some 200 men were burned after the morning battle on March 6, 1836. The corpses of the slaughtered garrison were dragged outside, and Santa Anna's soldiers then doused them with oil and burned them in three big bonfires. Scott Huddleston is a veteran staff writer, covering Bexar County government, local history, preservation and the Alamo. This event is so significant in my mind that I always try to devote a column that honors the heroism of these men on or around the anniversary of the occasion. Letter to the Editor: Writer's history of Alamo needs clearing up An Alamo master plan under development for the city, Texas General Land Office and nonprofit Alamo Endowment includes a proposal to repair the Cenotaph and relocate it, possibly to a pocket park along Market Street, on the south end of the pedestrian bridge, in proximity to the Ludlow and Springfield sites. Skeletons in Buckskin at the Alamo - HistoryNet Two markers nonetheless remain today on a stone wall by a pedestrian bridge on the south side of Commerce, across from the Shops at Rivercenter mall parking garage, denoting the area where pyres are believed to have burned. And the battle of the Alamo was not fought to the last man, as many of the defenders of the Alamo escaped. The Ashes of the Alamo Defenders San Fernando Cathedral, 115 Main Plaza, sfcathedral.org After the Battle of the Alamo, the remains of the dead Texians were burned in three funeral pyres on the . Todish (1998), p. 82; Lindley (2003), p. 144; Moore (2007), p. 100. Groneman (2001), p. 1; Lindley (2003), pp. Last edited on 28 February 2023, at 16:08, To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World, List of Texian survivors of the Battle of the Alamo, "Telegraph and Texas Register May 28, 1837", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Alamo_defenders&oldid=1142115922, Left on March 5 as the final courier sent from the Alamo, First courier sent out after arrival of Mexican troops on February 23, Adjutant of the garrison, next in command after co-commanders Bowie and Travis, Left February 29 as a courier to Gonzales, unable to enter the Alamo, Courier to Goliad and Gonzales, returned March 3, possibly died manning one of the cannons, Co-commander of the garrison after the departure of James. After accepting the formal surrender of Mexican forces at San Antonio, Seguin oversaw the burial ceremonies for the Alamo defenders' ashes. S.A.-area rancher catches the hearts of American Idol judges, 10 things to do this weekend in San Antonio, Boy, 11, shoots self in head with gun he found in apartment, Take a look inside this $3.5 million 'mystery' mansion, VIDEO: Hail goes through Alamodome roof, thousands without power, Reign of terror: Neighbors recall owners of killer pit bulls, New food truck park opens at The CO-OP SA, Viral TikTok video shows loose part on S.A. rodeo Ferris wheel. Segun became the first Tejano to serve in the new Republic's Senate. [6] When the Mexican Army of Operations under the command of Santa Anna arrived in Bxar with 1,500 troops on February 23, the remaining Alamo garrison numbered 150. corporation. The date of March 6, 1836, is forever ensconced in the annals of history. Nor is it at all clear that the Alamos defenders bought time for Sam Houston to raise the army that eventually defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto the following month. By most accounts, most or all of the corpses are believed to have been burned along the Alameda, a dirt road running along rows of cottonwood trees, where Commerce Street is now a major. Travis arrived at the Alamo in February 1836. In the end, the siege at the Alamo ended up costing him all of four days. Left with Andrew Jackson Sowell left to buy supplies; namesake of, Gonzales Mounted Ranger Company dispatched with the Travis letter, Entered March 4 a.k.a. The Alamo installed thesestunning bronze sculptures of historical figures from the Texas Revolution in our Cavalry Courtyard. Ron J. Jackson Jr. is a regular Wild West contributor and the award-winning author of Joe, the Slave Who Became an Alamo Legend (co-authored by Lee Spencer White), Alamo Survivors (also co-authored by Lee Spencer White) and Alamo Legacy: Alamo Descendants Remember the Alamo. Samuel H. Walker. On March 6, 1918, a woman named Adina De Zavala unveiled two marble tablets marking the location of the funeral pyres for the men who died at the Alamo. The siege of the Alamo lasted for 13 days, from Feb. 23 to March 6, 1836, when the Mexican army surrounded and attacked the Alamo. The overall markers and indicators suggest that it was European. Everetts Alamo watercolors represent some of the earliest artistic depictions of the battle-scarred chapel, including a rear view of its roofless interior with rocks strewn about the dirt floor and weeds growing atop its walls. Nothing is wanted but money, he wrote in a pair of 1832 letters, and Negros are necessary to make it. Each time a Mexican government threatened to outlaw slavery, many in Austins colony began packing to go home. In truth, the fate of the cremated remains is far sadder. Todish (1998), p. 89; Groneman (1990), pp.4041; Groneman (1990), p. 42; Moore (2007), p. 100. [7], A fierce defense was launched from within the walls, even as Bowie and Travis made unsuccessful attempts to negotiate with the Mexican army. 9293; Groneman (2001), pp. A marble sarcophagus in the entry of San Fernando Cathedral has markers nearby, saying it contains the remains of Alamo defenders. [2], In an effort to tamp down on the unrest, martial law was declared and military governor General Martn Perfecto de Cos established headquarters in San Antonio de Bxar, stationing his troops at the Alamo. The odor was more sickening than that from the corpses in the river. Lord (1961), p. 217; Todish (1998), p. 83. Board signals it will keep reference to 'heroic' Alamo defenders in In all probability the military buried them out of respect. This, by and large, is not the Texas history many of us learned in school; instead, we learned a tale written by Anglo historians beginning in the 19th century. School districts to pay millions as bond debt program Man suspected of serial arson in far south Bexar County area, San Antonio man who shot Good Samaritan sentenced, New Alamo Collections Center named for local philanthropist. Battle of the Alamo | Description & Facts | Britannica At first the battle was primarily a siege marked by artillery duels and small skirmishes. Even as the nation is undergoing a sweeping reassessment of its racial history, and despite decades of academic research that casts the Texas Revolt and the Alamos siege in a new light, little of this has permeated the conversation in Texas. R.A. Gillespie and Capt. Although Mexican troops launched three separate attacks against the square, they could not take the Texian position. COMING SATURDAY: Red McCombs collection of historic artifacts. It was probably connected with Lindos which is supported by epigraphic finds from that city. List of Alamo defenders. View Source Suggest Edits Memorial Photos Flowers Memorials Region North America USA Texas Bexar County San Antonio The Alamo Defenders of the Alamo Memorial Maintained by: Find a Grave Added: 22 Aug 2000 Illustration of the Battle of the Alamo, San Antonio, Texas, March 6, 1836. Since the Sanborn map of 1895 shows both the Ludlow House and the Springfield House, it was an excellent map to use as the base map for the location of the pyres. 4548; Lindley (2003), p. 87. 2023 TIME USA, LLC. The Battle of the Alamo (February 23 - March 6, 1836) was a crucial conflict of the Texas Revolution. A graduate of the University of Texas at Austin, she retired from a career in commercial interior (signed) William Barret Travis, February 23, 1836" Letter to Gonzales alcalde Andrew Ponton. After the battle, and Almeron's death,they were freed to spread the word of what had happened at the Alamo. Columns > Remembering The Alamo Yet the suggestion fatigued Mexican soldiers may have rolled some defenders bodies into ditches and hastily covered them with dirt is not absurd. He directed the Alcalde, Ruiz, to have built two immense wooden pyres. The odds were certainly not in their favor. No concentrations of ash or charcoal were found. p. 236; Todish (1998), p. 85. Lindley (2003), pp. Wright in her article Where Lie the Bodies of the Alamo Heroes, published in the San Antonio Express onJuly 10, 1932. On March 6, 1918, a woman named Adina De Zavala unveiled two marble tablets marking the location of the funeral pyres for the men who died at the Alamo. Issuance was dependent upon the military muster lists and either the veterans or their heirs filing a claim, a process that required an upfront fee to complete. 3. His brother,. Alamo historians and curators continue their research to ensure that all men who died at the Alamo are honored. In time, as we know now, they put away their suitcases and brought out their guns. Tejano Heroes of the Texas Revolution - American Battlefield Trust Whether Corner was noting a separate discovery of skeletal remains by Babbitt or mistakenly referring to Everetts earlier find is unknown. Groneman (1990), p. 30; Moore (2007), p. 100. Lining up St. Josephs Church on that map with an aerial from Google Earth indicates the River Center parking garage at 849 E. Commerce St. and the Marriott Rivercenter hotel parking garage are on the sites. Todish (1998), p. 81; Hopewell (1994), p. 125; Nofi (1992), p. 131. All Rights Reserved. and the land covered over by buildings, severing our historical connection with these sacred sites. The story of the pyres and the efforts to commemorate them illustrates how the passage of time and the growth of a city can erase crucial parts of history. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 111. 7475; Groneman (1990), pp. He wrote some dramatic letters during the ensuing siege, its true, but how anyone could attest to the defenders bravery is beyond us. Santa Anna, after the Mexicans were taken out, ordered wood to be brought to burn the bodies of the Texans Ruiz wrote. A muster roll of the final day of the battle does not exist, and therefore historians reconstruct the list of Defenders from available information. It's easy to unsubscribe if we're not a good fit for you. Groneman (1990), p. 80; Moore (2007), p. 100. Trip Planning Caution: RoadsideAmerica.com offers maps, directions and attraction details as a convenience, providing all information as is. (Image credit: Dean Fikar via Getty Images) The discovery of three. Do you think the enraged Mexicans gave them decent funerals? According to Esparza, Tejanos discussed the matter with Bowie who advised them to take the amnesty. Colonel Juan Nepomuceno Seguin'sAlamo Defenders' Burial OrationColumbia (Later Houston)Telegraph and Texas Register April 4, 1837. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 109. History is who we are and why we are the way we are.. (Slaves identified by last names of their masters), Died June 1836 of wounds incurred during the battle or during his escape, This page was last edited on 28 February 2023, at 16:08. In 1889 he recalled having had the ashes buried within San Antonios San Fernando Cathedral, in front of the altar railings, but very near the altar steps. Jos Mara Rodriguez, who witnessed the storming of the Alamo as a child, later expressed doubt the ashes had been buried inside the sanctuary without the common knowledge of his fellow parishioners, though a marble sarcophagus just inside the entrance of the present-day cathedral supposedly holds those ashes. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 8; Todish (1998), p. 76. In the pursuit of uncovering every infinitesimal piece of evidence about what happened during the battle, more thorough research methods continue to evolve and Tejanos have begun to add their voices. Angered and inspired, Texians vowed to remember. "Companions in Arms!! Please reload the page and try again. The way I explain it, says Andres Tijerina, a retired history professor in Austin, is Mexican-Americans [in Texas] are brought up, even in the first grade, singing the national anthem and the Pledge of Allegiance and all that, and its not until the seventh grade that they single us out as Mexicans. Deep down in the debris, Corner wrote, were found two or three skeletons that had evidently been hastily covered with rubbish after the fall, for with them were found fur caps and buckskin trappings, undoubted relics of the ever memorable last stand. He dates the discovery to the 184954 tenure of Major Edwin Burr Babbitt of the Quartermaster Corps, who oversaw the construction of a wooden roof on the chapel, as well as a second floor and the iconic hump atop the Alamo facade. Alamo preservationist Adina De Zavala wrote in 1917 of four Alamo funeral pyres, including one that tradition says burned in the Alamo courtyard before orders were given to build others to the south, southeast and east by south. Many have drawn from that narrative to conclude that the 1930s Alamo Cenotaph, with sculpted images of flames and text referencing fire that burned their bodies, was built on a funeral pyre site in Alamo Plaza. Battle Of The Alamo - HistoryNet But the way we view it doesand, as a state and a country, now is the time to teach the next generation our history, not our myths. On April 16, 1836, the Mexican Army captured West and other New Washington, TX residents. In the aftermath of the Texas Revolution travelers to San Antonio were drawn to the site of the celebrated Battle of the Alamo. Lindley (2003), p. 143; Groneman (1990), p. 93. In December 1835, he helped guide the Texans through the streets during the Battle of Bxar. Dr. E.F. Mitchusson, Dispatched on a personal errand for Segun February 23, Assumed to be a courier, who left with John William Smith, Chief surgeon of the garrison, created a hospital in the fortress, Left February 25 to recruit reinforcements, The final courier sent to Washington-on-the-Brazos, unable to return, Left for Gonzales as a courier on February 23; relayed the Travis letter from Albert Martin to the provisional government at, Sent to Gonzales for reinforcements on February 23, Namesake of Taylor County, brother of Edward and James, entered March 1 or 4, Namesake of Taylor County, Texas, brother of George and Edward, entered March 1 or 4, Per historian Lindley, no first name on the muster rolls, Slave of William B. Travis, fought beside him in the battle; accompanied Susanna Dickinson to Gonzales. After twelve days Santa Anna, tired of waiting for his heavy artillery and eager for a glorious victory to enhance his reputation, determined to take the Alamo by storm. [10] At 5:30a.m. on March 6, the Mexican army began the final siege. The monument was erected in grey Georgia marble and pink Texas granite. In his 1890 book San Antonio de Bxar: A Guide and History author William Corner recalled one specific discovery of remains that echoes the descriptions of Everett and Bernard. Archaeologists have found three graves containing human remains inside the historic Alamo Mission in central San Antonio, Texas. Meaning the Alamos defenders, far from being the valiant defenders who delayed Santa Anna, pretty much died for nothing. 94, 134. As the ashes of the Alamo continued to smolder, Sam Houston feared another disaster could befall his Texas Army. In 1911, San Antonio Express reporter Charles Merritt Barnes wrote of two pyres along Commerce Street, on a property known as the Ludlow House, and another about 250 yards southeast, at the old Post House or Springfield House. Youre a Mexican, and always will be. Many of these men bravely fought in other battles of the Texas Revolution and should be honored as heroes, but they are not considered part of the list of Alamo Defenders. Historical experts have said the remains are not likely Alamo defenders, but possibly fallen participants of the 1813 Battle of Rosillo. Whether they produced battlefield images of the dead or daguerreotype portraits of common soldiers, []. Wouldnt it be grand if the Reimagine the Alamo team could conductsome more exact measurements, include the pyre sites in their redevelopment plan, and once again erect proper memorials to our heroes? Before dawn on March 6, he launched his troops against the walls of the Alamo in three separate attacks. [3] Later research has shown some listed on the cenotaph were not there, and the total of Alamo combatants has risen with newer research. Thus the true resting place of the Alamo dead may forever be shrouded in mystery. That portion in the vicinity of the Alamo, across the river and on the other side of town, was a decidedly unsafe place because of skulking Indians. "We are honored to partner with the San Antonio Living History Association to present this meaningful ceremony, and to invite the community to join us in paying tribute to the Alamo Defenders." The Dawn at the Alamo event will take place from 6:00 a.m. to 7:00 a.m. on Monday, March 6, 2023, in Alamo Plaza. For too long, the revolt has been viewed by many as a war fought by all Anglos against all of Mexican descent. Amid what they identified as the fill of an 1836-era defensive trench they unearthed the partial skull of a possible male of unknown ethnicity between the ages of 17 and 23. Further complicating the search for answers is the fact that some of the remains unearthed on the battleground date from the earlier Spanish mission period. The other pyre, which was of equal width, was about eighty feet long and was laid out in the same direction, but was on the opposite side and on property now owned by Dr. Ferdinand Herff Sr., about 250 yards southeast of the first pyre, this property being known as the site of the old Post House or the Springfield House (334 E. Commerce St.). If youre looking at the Alamo as a kind of state religion, this is the original sin, says San Antonio art historian Ruben Cordova. operated by. 18, 135, 182; Lindley (2003), pp. Lindley (2003), p. 144; Groneman (1990), p. 32; Moore (2007), p. 100. All rights reserved. Left as courier with Seguin on February 25, Entered March 1 or 4 Gonzales Mounted Ranger Company, Slave of Desauque, served as a combatant (Slaves identified by last names of their masters), On a scouting run when the Mexican troops arrived on February 23. The Ghosts of San Fernando Cathedral in San Antonio - Ghost City Tours [13] In the following decades, the public wanted to know the location of the burial site, but Segun gave conflicting statements, perceived as due to age-related memory problems. Invariably, visitors asked about the final resting place of the Alamo dead, and locals would motion toward a peach orchard a few hundred yards from the mission fort. Free The Alamo Background Photos, [100+] The Alamo Background for FREE In 1910, Charles Barnes, journalist-historian and writer for the Express-News, published Combats and Conquests of Immortal Heroes and stated: When the slaughter was done, Santa Anna was confronted with the problem of disposing the dead. Born in New Haven, Connecticut, Emily West was a free woman of mixed race who became one of Texas' best-known legends. Groneman (1990), pp. In December of 1835, a group of Texan volunteer soldiers had. Who survived the Alamo? - HISTORY R.A. Gillespie and Capt. 2829, 3943, 46, 51; Moore (2007), p. 100; Lindley (2003), p. 98. Remains thought to be those of the Alamo defenders were discovered at the Cathedral of San Fernando during the Texas 1936 centennial, and re-interred in a marble sarcophagus. So much of what we know about the battle is provably wrong. Regardless, what became of those Alamo skeletons in buckskin? The first published Texian list of casualties was in the March 24, 1836 issue of the Telegraph and Texas Register. And while the hallowed grounds of the Alamo may continue to yield archaeological clues, the fates of many who died in its defense 185 years ago will assuredly remain a mystery. The stories of each of these men is vital to understanding the Battle of the Alamo. Bernard, a Texian captive whod been spared execution at Goliad, documented the Mexican armys departure from San Antonio. After losing his re-election bid in 1835, Crockett vowed to go to Texas where he expected to revive his political career. Myths surround Alamo history - mySA Groneman (1990), p. 77; Moore (2007), p. 100. Six Alamo defenders are listed officially as being from New York. This Monday, March 6, marks the anniversary of the fall of the Alamo outside of San Antonio, Texas, back in 1836. Francisco Antonio Ruiz, the alcalde, later recalled in an account for the 1860 Texas Almanac that Gen. Antonio Lpez de Santa Anna assigned a company of dragoons to build a pyre. But the 1999 UTSA report said research indicates the only place that can safely be eliminated from contention is beneath the Cenotaph, even though it is the place most tourists assume is the site of their burial. The Post or Springfield House, on the south side of Commerce Street, was replaced by the Halff Building, which was later demolished in 1967 for a HemisFair river extension. It ended in a decisive victory for Mexican forces over Texan volunteers. His correspondence shows conclusively that Stephen F. Austin, the so-called Father of Texas, spent years jousting with the Mexico City bureaucracy over the necessity of enslaved labor to the Texas economy.
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